LAD #37

 

The case Brown v. Board of Education, originating from Topeka, Kansas with the story of Linda Brown, would ultimately be the first step towards desegregation in the United States. Before the Supreme Court's decision in this case, the concept of "separate but equal" facilities was upheld by the case Plessy v. Ferguson. The ruling of this cae allowed for the state-endorsed segregation of public schools. Linda Brown, an African American student, was supported by the NAACP as she challenged this segregation. From the outset, the case for the Plaintiff was strong: segregation in schools made black children feel inferior to white children and put them at a disadvantage later on in life. However, because of the precedent established by Plessy v. Ferguson, the hands of the state courts were tied and the case was not decided in favor of Brown. It was not until the case went to the Supreme Court that the decision of Plessy v. Ferguson was struck down and segregation in public schools was made unconstitutional.  Unfortunately, because the Supreme Court's ruling did not determine a timeline for the desegregation of schools and racial stigmas persisted, it would be many years before desegregation was realized.

LAD #36

 

Following World War II, President Truman issued his Truman Doctrine to Congress. In this address, he urged representatives to support a plan to provide economic and military aid to Greece and Turkey to assist in their reconstruction. Great Britain, an American ally throughout the war and a supporter of capitalism and democracy, could no longer afford to finance these nations. Because of this, Truman believed that it was the responsibility of the United States to protect its fundamental ideals overseas. If this aid was not provided, Truman feared that Greece and Turkey- a necessary ally in the Middle East,- would fall to Communism under the influence of the Soviet Union. This could not be tolerated. According to Truman, radical Communists were already gaining influence in these areas and were preying upon the insecurities of the peoples and governments there. If these countries succumbed to their influence, their neighbors would surely follow. In this way, American financial aid would not only bolster the economies of Greece and Turkey by allowing them to import the materials necessary to sustain and rebuild their populations, but would also secure a foothold for future American influence. The Truman Doctrine would be one of the United States' first steps towards becoming an international police force and benefactor.







LAD #35



On February 19, 1942, President Roosevelt issued a vague executive order: Executive Order 9066. This order  granted the Secretary of War- Henry Lewis Stimson- the authority to designate military areas and restrict access to those areas by certain individuals. Excluded individuals could then be relocated to separate "accomodations" which would be overseen by the Secretary of War and his colleagues. Other members of the cabinet were instructed to furnish these accomodations. Though the terms of this order are not explicitly stated, it is clear that the order was intended to allow for the segregation of Japanese-Americans, German-Americans, and Italian-Americans who were often arrested or sent to internment camps following the issue of the order. The order is deliberately opaque in its transparency to avoid seeming openly racist. Roosevelt qualifies the order by declaring that the country was obligated to protect itself against espionage and sabotage in times of war.

LAD #34

Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, President Roosevelt urged Congress to declare war on the kingdom of Japan. According to Roosevelt, this declaration would have the support of the American people and would reflect a pre-existing sentiments that existed against Japanese aggression. In asking for this declaration of war, Roosevelt provided multiple justifications for an abandonment of the country's isolationist policies. The Japanese had planned the attack- likely the product of several weeks/months of planning- while mainting a front of diplomatic relations with the United States. In response to the attack, Japanese diplomats continued to assure the United States that their intentions were peaceful. For these reasons, they could not be trusted. American lives had been lost at Pearl Harbor and on other vessels that had been torpedoed by Japanese missiles. Japan had also taken an aggressive stance in the Pacific by attacking the Phillippines and Guam. At this point, President Roosevelt believed that the country was justified in declaring war and the country would renew mobilization efforts soon after.

LAD #33

 

On March 4, 1933, PFranklin D. Roosevelt assumed his presidential and addressed the American people. His Inaugural Address addressed the country's current economic panic and proposed the New Deal upon which he would lead his administration. Resolved to confront the issues of unemployment, loss of savings, and lack of demand, Roosevelt urged the American people to unite around a common cause. In order to recover from the panic and to be successful in the future, both the very wealthy and the unemployed would have to cast aside prejudices and work for the good of the whole. Marginal profits could no longer drive domestic policy- as it had throughout the administrations of President Harding, President Coolidge, and President Hoover- and the Federal Government could not continue to take a laissez-faire approach to big business. According to Roosevelt, the United States was blessed with an abundance of resources. However, these resources were being exploited by the "rulers of the exchange of mankind's goods." A solution to the country's economic problems could not be found if the country continued to be dominated by the agenda's of these individuals and corrupt financial institutions would not inspire confidence in consumers. Roosevelt advised that the country turn away from international commercial projects- while still maintaining a "good neighbor" policy- and focus on job creation through the initiation of public works projects that would use the country's available resources. Reducing the numbers of foreclosures on homes and businesses and cutting spending would also be priorities under Roosevelt's adminstration. He also advised that the Federal Government assume control of transport and communication systems and that it regulate the practices of banks and reestablish a stable currency. Roosevelt believed that the Constitution would be flexible enough to allow him to carry out these plans. However, he warned Congress in his address that he would depart from the balance of powers in order to "wage war against the emergency." It became clear that Roosevelt was in favor of a more powerful central government to combat the panic.

LAD #32

 

Following the Great War, members of the international community came together to draft a formal contract of peace. The result was the Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928. In effect in 1929, the document forbade signatories from building their foreign policies on the basis of war. It also encouraged member nations to pursue diplomatic strategies to resolve international disputes. There was also a third clause which stated that member nations would be obligated to have the document ratified by their respective government. Individual ratifications would be reported and the document would go into effect when the the United States had offically approved it. This pact, whose clauses were heavily influenced by the altruisms reminiscent of President Wilson's administration, essentially did little to prevent future world wars. It did not stipulate actions that would be taken if the pact was broken nor did it expand on the international definition of an act of war. This would allow the League of Nations to pursue a policy of appeasement towards Adolf Hitler in later years.

LAD #31

As the Great War drew to a close, the international community struggled to formulate and agree upon a comprehensive treaty. Central Empires proudly refused to give up the territory that they had gained during the war, but feared retribution for their actions. Members of the Allied Powers, particularly Great Britain and France, were eager to punish Germany. President Woodrow Wilson of the United States seemed to take the most moderate, though idealistic, approach to the issue of drafting a resolution. He advocated for fourteen basic points. He called for an end to secret to alliances and an enforcement of free seas and free trade. Wishing to protect national sovereignty, he also advised that armaments be reduced in all nations and that Poland, the Balkins, and areas in the Ottoman Empire be allowed to develop indepenedently, among others. Wilson's main point was the necessity of a League of Nations that would mediate international issues. This international body would ensure that issues were solved diplomatically and would not escalate into global wars. Ultimately, Wilson would be forced to heed to the desires of France and Germany. As a result, most of his points were disregarded. Wilson was willing to see his points thrown away as long as the League of Nations was established. Though the United States never participated in this body, Wilson compromised on this point.

LAD #30

The Supreme Court case Schenck v. United States determined that freedom of speech, guaranteed under the Bill of Rights, did not always exist in times of war. Charles Schenck, a member of the Socialist party, vehemently opposed the Conscription Act. This piece of legislation was drafted during the Great War in order to draft soldiers to serve overseas. Schenck was found distributing papers that urged readers to petition for a repeal of the act. When he was arrested, he was confident that he would be protected by the Bill of Rights. Unfortunately for Schenck, a unanimous Supreme Court determined that he was guilty of conspiracy against the Federal Government. In order to justify this decision, Justice Holmes explained that, because the country was at war, Schenck's actions could "create a clear and present danger." This essentially meant that in different circumstances, the same action could produce a danger for the Federal Government or the American people. By disrupting the conscription during the Great War, at a time when the Federal Government needed men to serve, Schenck was creating a danger.

LAD #29

 

 

After observing Lewis Hine's photographs documenting the labor of American children, reading novels like Oliver Twist that highlighted the plight of American children, and analyzing the 1900 census that revealed that two million children were part of America's work force, the Federal Government were prepared to intervene and protect its youngest constituents. The Keating-Owen bill was passed in 1916 to do this. This piece of legislation used the Federal Government's authority to regulate interstate commerce to dictate that no products could be sold that were made by workers under the age of fourteen. Materials extracted from mines by workers under the age of sixteen were also forbidden from being sold, as well as products made by children who worked for more than eight hours a day or at night. Unfortunately, the bill was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. A Constitutional amendment would be needed before the Federal Government would have any real jurisdiction to restrict child labor. It would not be until 1941 that the Supreme Court reversed its decision and upheld the Fair Labor and Standards Act.

LAD #28

President Woodrow Wilson's First Inuagural Address outlined his goals for his presidency. In stating his intentions, he addressed the issues facing the country at the time of his inauguration and the efforts of the Progressives. Though he did recognize the successes of industrialization, he appeared more concerned with the human cost of industrialization, conservation of the nation's natural resources, and government corruption. He seemed thank the Progressives for their "efforts to rectify wrong" and promised to finish the work that they had started. According to Wilson, this was to become the destiny of the Democratic Party. He stated that the tariff, which worked hand-in-hand with the interests of bankers and trusts, would have to be removed and that industry would need to be restricted. The modernization of American agriculture would also be a priority. His speech centered around the idea of restoration. Old institutions could not simply be eradicated, but would need to be modified and reformed. In order to accomplish his goals, Wilson also believed that the government could not be partisan and would need to re-focus on the protection of its constituents rather than economic success.

LAD #27

 

Under President Woodrow Wilson's administration, the Clayton Anti-Trust Act was passed to limit the power of big business in America. This piece of legislation attempted to dissemble existing monopolies and prevent the formation of new ones. It prevented industrialists from selling their commodoties at different prices to different purchasers if this discrimination limited competition. This regulation was intended to prevent large businesses, which could afford to charge lower prices, from dramatically dropping the cost of their goods in order to elimate the competition of presented by smaller business. Often times, these large businesses would then raise their rates again after the smaller companies had been forced out of business. The act also stipulated that businesses could not offer their goods for discounted rates to other companies that promised not to engage in commerce with other businesses. It also defined unlawful mergers. Merges of companies would not be lawful if they severely limited competition and created a monopoly. Despite all of these regulations, the act does not come across as "anti-business." Big business were still given the authority to set their own prices and did not prevent them from choosing their own customers. The goal was not to restrict trade. Rather, the Federal Government wanted to reign in on monopolies.

LAD #26

Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have  Dream" speech highlighted the continued mistreatment of African Americans by the American society that existed in the 1950s and 1960s. He compares their struggle for equality to a fight that the nation as a whole was engaged in for freedom. In this way, the civil rights movement becomes a continuation of the American Revolution. According to King, the country will stand on its foundation of liberty and freternity only when all races are considered equal. He goes further, saying that the continued struggle for equality must be nonviolent. He urges African Americans to shed their own prejudices against white Americans and work with them to achieve their goal. King also said that the civil rights movement could not stop until absolute equality was reached. Throughout the speech, King appeared optimistic. In his eyes, racial equality was the tangible last step toward freedom in the United States.

LAD #25

The Dawes Severalty Act of 1887 established a plan to relocate thousands of Native Americans to reservations. The President, Glover Cleveland at the time, was given the power to appoint "special agents" to oversee the process. These "special agents" would be responsible for surveying land and delegating varying amounts of land to individual Native Americans. This would destroy the Native American practice of communal land ownership. Native Americans who were not already placed on reservations would also be entitled to land and this land would be given for free. However, the Federal Government still wished to have some jurisdiction over the land that was set aside for Native Americans, or at least the potential for future jurisdiction. As a result, the Dawes Act also allowed the Federal Government to buy back reservation land if the need arose. This land that was bought back could then be given to American settlers. The laws of the state or territory in which a reservation was established would also apply to the individuals settled on the reservation. Religious and educational institutions already established on land that was set aside to become a reservation would be able to continue their practice. The Dawes Act also declared that if there was a need for irrigation of the land that had been given to a group of Native Americans, and there often was such a need, the Federal Government could help. The assimilation of Native Americans into American society was encouraged and preferred; still, all Native Americans living on reservations were guarenteed equal protection under the law. Certain tribes were excluded from the treaty. The Dawes Act effectively served to undermine Native American interests in the United States and increased the Federal Government's control over their way of life.

LAD #24

 

 

In William Jennings Bryan's "Cross of Gold" speech, Bryan declared his support for bimetallism. He began by stating that a laborer was much a businssman as his employer. According to Bryan, the interests of the laborer, or common man, were just as important, if not more important, than those of the industrialist. This was because the prosperity of the country and the industrialists, represented by cities, depended on the success of the laborers. Because of this, the country did not only need the income tax, less powerful banks, and more transparency in government, but also greater representation of the common man in government. The issue of the gold standard was of particular importance to the country's working class and highlighted the deepening divide between the country's economic classes. The Republicans appeared to be representing the industrialists in regards to the issue, advocating for the gold standard. In their eyes, bimetallism could only be implemented when international agreement had been reached and if the wealthiest members of American society were propsering, their wealth would trickle down to members of lower classes. These ideas were intolerable to Bryan. Bimetallism, or the free coinage of silver at a ratio of sixteen to one with gold, would increase the amount of money in circulation and rescue farmers and workers from debt and poverty. This would make for a stronger foundation of the country and allow the country to excel as a whole. The Federal Government would also recieve money needed for carrying out reforms. Waiting for foreign powers to agree to bimetallism was simply un-American in Bryan's eyes. Instead, the United States should set the example for Europe and the rest of the world. The Democratic Party would rally around these ideas, endorsed by Bryan, and represent the working class on the issue of the gold standard. 

LAD #23

The Populist Party emerged in the late eighteen hundreds as a reaction to the growing power of the industrialists and the continued exploitation of workers. In the Preamble of the "Populist Party Platform," the Populists discussed the conditions surrounding the formation of their party. They describe corruption surrounding voting procedures, impoverished workers, and greedy robber barons who reaped fortunes from the labor of workers. Their is also a note of xenophobia in their argument. Immigrants are also to blame for the plight of the American working class because they take American jobs and work for lower wages. According to the Populists, the Federal Government passively allowed these ills to exist and neither the Republicans nor the Democrats had any plan to correct them. The Populist Party proposed several measures that could serve as a solution. It advocated for an increase in the amount of money in circulation, a graduated income tax, a postal savings bank for workers, and an unlimited coinage of silver and gold at the ratio of sixteen to one. The Populists also said that the Federal Government must take control of the railroads, telephones, and telegraph and repossess excess land held by corporations so that it could be delegated to settlers. They also formally established a permanent labor union to represent their interests. Their document ended with a list of sentiments in which they resolved to remain actively seized in the matter. Condemning the Pinkerton system and unwanted immigration, they asked that the President and Vice President be able to serve only one term and said that the election of senators should be carried out directly by the American people. The secret ballot and pensions for soldiers and sailors also needed to be established by the Federal Government. In this way, the Populists essentially demanded reform.

LAD #22

 

McKinley's War Message is essentially a piece of rhetoric designed to excite Congress to intervene militarily in the conflict between Spain and Cuba. President McKinley begins the speech by giving some historical background on the conflict and explaining how the conflict has affected the United States. According to McKinley, the Cubans have revolted against their Spanish oppressors multiple times and the United States has been forced to take on significant measures to pursue a policy of neutrality. War crimes have shocked the American people, Cuban investments have been lost, and the conflict did not seem to be reaching any forseeable conclusion. McKinley assures his listeners that his primary interest is to see peace in Cuba, but that President Grant's policy of neutrality is not the appropiate way to mediate the problem. In fact, he declares that it is America's duty to prevent the atrocities of war so near its borders. He goes on to state four justifications for American intervention in Cuba. The first is the American responsibility to stop the aforementioned atrocities of war. The second is to protect "our citizens in Cuba." The third is to protect America's financial interests in Cuba. The fourth justification is to put an end to a war that has threatened the peace and security of the United States. McKinley describes the seizure of American ships and property. He finishes the speech by implying that a Spanish missile blew up the American Maine and briefly mentions that Spain had agreed to a cease-fire.